Table 2 Summary of studies included in review

T Anderson [39]

N = 2571

Inuit

NL, QC, NU, NT

Off-reserve

Northern

18+ years

M/F

Personal

Familial

Mental health/emotional well-being

Personal and familial residential school attendance only significantly related to men's mental distress

T Anderson and A Thompson [48]

N = 2925

Inuit

NL, QC, NU, NT

Off-reserve

Northern

15–54 years

M/F

Personal

Familial

General health

Personal and familial residential school attendance not significantly associated with self-reported excellent or very good health

SS Barton, HV Thommasen, B Tallio, W Zhang and AC Michalos [49]

N = 201

First Nations

BC

Rural

M age = 63.5 (attended RS); M age = 61.2 (non-attendee)

M = 93; F = 108

Personal

General health

Residential school attendees reported lower self-health scores compared to non-attendees

A Bombay, K Matheson and H Anisman [50]

N = 143

First Nations

ON, SK, BC, QC, AB, NB, MB, NS

On/off-reserve

Rural/urban

18–64 years

M = 36; F = 107

Familial

Mental health/emotional well-being

Offspring of residential school Survivors appeared at increased risk for depression

A Bombay, K Matheson and H Anisman [51]

N = 399

First Nations, Inuit, Métis

ON

Off-reserve

18–69 years

M = 88, F = 311

Familial

Mental health/emotional well-being

Altered appraisals of threat were associated with higher levels of depressive symptoms relative to non-residential school adults

A Bombay, K Matheson and H Anisman [9]

N/A

First Nations

Canada-wide

On-reserve

18+ years

M/F

Familial

Mental health/emotional well-being

The more generations that attended residential school, the poorer the psychological well-being of the next generation

M Chongo, JG Lavoie, R Hoffman and M Shubair [52]

N = 24

Aboriginal

BC

Urban

39–56 years

M

Personal

Familial

Mental health/emotional well-being

Many said historic trauma/residential school affected adherence to HAART, led to pain and/or abusing drugs, low self-esteem, self-blame, insecurity, fear, and resentment

MJ Cooke, P Wilk, KW Paul and S Gonneville [33]

N = 4060

Métis

Canada-wide

Off-reserve

Rural/urban/

Northern

6–14 years

M = 2050, F = 2010

Parental

Familial

Physical health

Residential school is a positive predictor of obesity among younger boys/girls but a negative predictor among older girls

RR Corrado and IM Cohen [5]

N = 127

First Nations

BC

17–81 years

M = 89, F = 38

Personal

Mental health/emotional well-being

Physical health

PTSD, substance abuse disorder, and major depression among residential school Survivors. Chronic headaches, heart problems, and arthritis also common

KJP Craib, PM Spittal, SH Patel, WM Christian, A Moniruzzaman, ME Pearce, L Demerais, C Sherlock, MT Schechter and P Cedar Project [37]

N = 512

Aboriginal

BC

Urban

Off-reserve

14–30 years

M = 247, F = 265

Familial

Physical health

Having at least one parent who attended residential school was an independent risk factor for HCV infection

T DeBoer, J Distasio, CA Isaak, LE Roos, S-L Bolton, M Medved, LY Katz, P Goering, L Bruce and J Sareen [53]

N = 504

Aboriginal

AB

Urban

Off-reserve

Age N/A

M = 320, F = 184

Personal

Familial

Mental health/emotional well-being

Residential school history (particularly father’s history) and a number of mental and physical health conditions were significantly associated with volatile substance use

D Dionne [44]

N = 5

First Nations

AB

On-reserve

47–71 years

M = 1, F = 4

Personal

Familial

Mental health/emotional well-being

Participant co-researchers explained addiction to drugs and alcohol as a coping mechanism

D Dionne and G Nixon [54]

N = 5

First Nations

AB

On-reserve

47–71 years

M = 1, F = 4

Personal

Familial

Mental health/emotional well-being

First Nations people and their family members suffered from trauma, shame, marginalization, institutionalized conditioning and abuse

RF Dyck, C Karunanayake, B Janzen, J Lawson, VR Ramsden, DC Rennie, PJ Gardipy, L McCallum, S Abonyi, JA Dosman, et al. [32]

N = 874

First Nations

SK

On-reserve

17–29 years

M = 431, F = 443

Personal

Familial

Physical health

Participants who attended residential school had slightly higher prevalence of diabetes than those that did not, but not statistically significant. Those with parent or grandparent residential school history also did not significantly predict diabetes

B Elias, J Mignone, M Hall, SP Hong, L Hart and J Sareen [41]

N = 2953

First Nations

MB

On-reserve

18+ years

M/F

Personal

Familial

Mental health/emotional well-being

Attendees with abuse history likely to have history of suicide thoughts or attempts. Abuse history for non-attendees more likely for those with multi-generational residential school exposure

D Feir [29]

N = 4939

First Nations, Inuit, Métis

ON, MB, SK, AB, BC

On/off-reserve

Rural/urban

7–15 years

M/F

Familial

General health

Children who had a mother that attended residential school fared better on numerous health dimensions than children whose mother did not attend

IM Findlay, J Garcea and JG Hansen [55]

N = 105

First Nations, Métis, non-status

Aboriginal, other

SK

Urban

18–64 years

M = 32, F = 72, Other = 1

Personal

Familial

General health

In part because residential school, as few as 6-11% reported physical, mental, emotional, and spiritual well-being as excellent

First Nations Regional Longitudinal Health Survey (RHS) [42]

N = 22,602

First Nations

Canada-wide

(excl. NU)

On-reserve

0–11 years (C)

12–17 years (Y)

18+ years (A)

M/F

Personal

Mental health/emotional well-being

Physical health

(C) No effects of familial residential school history

(Y) Youth who had at least one parent attend residential school were more likely to have thought about suicide

(A) Increased susceptibility to mental and physical health effects resulting from attendance at residential school

First Nations Information Governance Centre (FNIGC) [25]

N = 21,757

First Nations

Canada-wide

On-reserve

0–11 years (C)

12–17 years (Y)

18+ years (A)

M/F

Personal

Familial

Physical health

Mental health/emotional well-being

General health

(C) Emotional or behavioural problems not associated with familial residential school history (Y) Intergenerational impacts of residential school related to depressive symptoms

(A) Attendees more likely to be diagnosed with at least one chronic condition, smoking (maternal), and report poorer overall health and well-being

H Ghosh [30]

N = 20

First Nations

ON

Off-reserve

Urban

21–77 years

M = 3, F = 17

Personal

Physical health

Consumption of a higher concentration of carbohydrates at residential school partly indicative of higher incidences of diabetes among First Nations people.

JP Gone [56]

N = 1

First Nations

MB

On-reserve

50’s

F

Personal

Mental health/emotional well-being

Traumatic stressors caused by residential school related to historical trauma. Enduring problems through adulthood, (e.g., alcoholism, religious alienation, and troubled relationships)

C Hackett, D Feeny and E Tompa [28]

N = 14,280

First Nations, Inuit, Métis

Canada-wide

Off-reserve

Rural/urban/

Northern

18+ years

M, F

Familial

General health

Mental health/emotional well-being

Familial residential school attendance was associated with lower self-perceived health and mental health and higher risk for distress, suicidal ideation and suicide attempt

GK Healey [35]

N = 20

Inuit

NU

Northern

Parents of youth 13–19 years

M = 3, F = 17

Personal

Familial

Physical health

Parents discussed sexual health in the context of historical community events related to settlement and/or residential school

G Healey [34]

N = 20

Inuit

NU

Northern

30–58 years

M = 3, F = 17

Personal

Familial

Physical health

Traumatic experiences of the settlement and residential school era impact present-day family relationships and parent-adolescent communication in general and specifically sexual health

HA Howard [31]

N = 124

Indigenous

Canada-wide

18–86 years

M = 45, F = 79

Personal

Familial

Physical health

Residential school contributed to the urbanization of Indigenous people and to their health problems, in this case to eating habits affecting diabetes

Y Iwasaki and JG Bartlett [57]

N = 26

First Nations, Métis

Western Canada

Urban

26–69 years

M = 9, F = 17

Personal

Mental health/emotional well-being

Some Indigenous individuals with diabetes described cumulative stress due to their traumatic experiences in residential schools

Y Iwasaki and J Bartlett [58]

N = 26

First Nations, Métis

Western Canada

Urban

26–69 years

M = 9, F = 17

Personal

Mental health/emotional well-being

Some Indigenous individuals with diabetes described cumulative stress due to their traumatic experiences in residential schools

Y Iwasaki, J Bartlett and J O’neil [59]

N = 26

First Nations, Métis

Western Canada

Urban

26–69 years

M = 9, F = 17

Personal

Mental health/emotional well-being

Some Indigenous individuals with diabetes described cumulative stress due to their traumatic experiences in residential schools

K Jacklin [43]

N = 350

First Nations

ON

On-reserve

18+ years

143 females interviewed for every 100 males

Personal

Familial

General health

Least healthy, most unhappy and the most economically disadvantaged villages had a closer historical relationship to colonial influences (e.g., church, residential school and Indian Agents)

R Jackson, R Cain and T Prentice [60]

N = 72

First Nations, Inuit, Métis, Other

ON, BC, AB, MB, Atlantic region

26–54 years

M = 45, F = 23, Transgender = 4

N/A

Mental health/emotional well-being

Some participants attributed experiences of depression to historical trauma and legacy of residential school

LE Jones [61]

N = 31,630

First Nations

Canada-wide

On/off-reserve

Rural/urban/

Northern

49+ years

M/F

Personal

Mental health/emotional well-being

Exposure to residential schools led to an increase in smoking and drinking and potentially worse mental health outcomes (e.g., acculturative stress leading to risk health behaviours)

SA Juutilainen, R Miller, L Heikkilä and A Rautio [62]

N = 45

First Nations, Sami

ON, Canada; Finland

On-reserve

18–80 years

M = 18, F = 27

Personal

Familial

Mental health/emotional well-being

First Nations participants stated that personal and/or familial attendance at residential school had a negative impact on their health (e.g., language and cultural loss, fractured identity, and negative self-worth resulting in feelings of anger, stress, depression, and low-self-esteem)

V Kaspar [27]

N = 13,881

First Nations, Inuit, Métis, Other/multiple identity

Canada-wide

Off-reserve

Rural/urban/

Northern

34+ years

M = 6246, F = 7635

Personal

General health

Residential school attendance predicted negative health status both directly and indirectly through socioeconomic and community risk factors

MJ Kral [63]

N = 27

Inuit

NU

Northern

17–61 years

M = 16, F = 11

Familial

Mental health/emotional well-being

Romantic, family, and intergenerational relations described with suicidality in the context of colonial change. Negative effect of the colonial wound appears to have been on family relations, a serious form of cultural discontinuity

MB Kumar [64]

N = 10,306

First Nations, Inuit, Métis

Canada-wide

Off-reserve

Rural/urban

Northern

26–59 years

M/F

Personal

Familial

Mental health/emotional well-being

First Nations women, Métis men, and Métis women with personal or familial residential school history more likely than those without history to have had suicidal thoughts

MB Kumar and A Nahwegahbow [65]

N = 4686

(APS)

N = 3020

(CCHS–MH)

First Nations, Inuit, Métis

Canada-wide

Off-reserve

Rural/urban/

Northern

18–25 years

Personal

Familial

Mental health/emotional well-being

Personal or familial residential school experience was marginally associated with suicidal thoughts among off-reserve First Nations young adults.

MB Kumar, M Walls, T Janz, P Hutchinson, T Turner and C Graham [66]

N = 11,362

Métis

QC, ON, SK, AB, NU

Off-reserve

Rural/urban/

Northern

20–59 years

M/F

N/A

Mental health/emotional well-being

History of residential school experience not significantly associated with suicidal ideation

M Lemstra, M Rogers, A Thompson, J Moraros and R Buckingham [67]

N = 603

N/A

SK

N/A

N/A

Mental health/emotional well-being

Attending a residential school was independently associated with depressive symptomatology

M Lemstra, M Rogers, A Thompson, J Moraros and R Buckingham [68]

N = 603

First Nations, Inuit, Métis

SK

Off-reserve

Urban

18–69 years

M = 277, F = 253

Personal

Familial

Mental health/emotional well-being

Comparing to non-Indigenous IDUs, study found that Indigenous IDUs were more likely to be female and younger, less likely to receive paid income and were more likely to have attended residential school or had a parent/grandparent attend

A Moniruzzaman, ME Pearce, SH Patel, N Chavoshi, M Teegee, W Adam, WM Christian, E Henderson, KJ Craib and MT Schechter [69]

N = 605

First Nations, Inuit, Métis

BC

Off-reserve

Urban

14–30 years

M = 313, F = 292

Familial

Mental health/emotional well-being

Having at least one parent who attended residential school was marginally significant with attempted suicide

N Mota, B Elias, B Tefft, M Medved, G Munro and J Sareen [70]

N = 1125

First Nations

MB

On-reserve

12–17 years

M = 520, F = 605

Familial

Mental health/emotional well-being

Suicidality not significantly related to parent/grandparent attending residential school

RT Oster, A Grier, R Lightning, MJ Mayan and EL Toth [71]

N = 10

First Nations

AB

On-reserve

20+ years

M = 7, F = 3

Personal

Familial

Mental health/emotional well-being

Physical health

Diabetes, broken communities, loss of parenting skills, addictions, suicides, and marital breakups, apprehended children, lifeline (culture) severed, shame, loss of a voice, mental health problems, contaminated families, disarray and chaos, and pain

EA Owen-Williams [72]

N = 6

First Nations

BC

On/off-reserve

Rural

N/A

Personal

Mental health/emotional well-being

Three Elders personally attended residential school and the trauma of these schools was woven throughout each of the interviews. A legacy of resulting anger and alcohol and drug use occurred within communities.

J Reading and B Elias [4]

N = 2663

First Nations, Inuit

Canada-wide

On-reserve

45+ years

M, F

Personal

General health

65% of residential school attendees reported fair or poor health status

LH Robertson [73]

N = 3

Aboriginal

N/A

N/A

Personal

Mental health/emotional well-being

Individuals exhibited a cluster of symptoms consistent with Brasfield’s typology, Residential School Syndrome, a specific form of PTSD

A Ross, J Dion, M Cantinotti, D Collin-Vézina and L Paquette [74]

N = 358

Indigenous

QC

On/off-reserve

Rural/urban

18+ years

M = 164, F = 194

Personal

Mental health/emotional well-being

General health

Residential school attendance was linked to alcohol problems and 83 participants reported that residential school had a negative impact on their health and well-being

C Rotenberg [75]

N = 8801

First Nations

Atlantic, QC, ON, Prairies, BC, Territories

Off-reserve

Rural/urban/

Northern

15+ years

M/F

Personal

Familial

General health

The study did not detect any significant differences with respect to selected health outcomes analyzed

JP Rothe, P Makokis, L Steinhauer, W Aguiar, L Makokis and G Brertton [76]

N = 15

First Nations

AB

On-reserve

18–29 years

M, F

Familial

Mental health/emotional well-being

Impaired driving, alcohol abuse, and intergenerational impacts due to local people’s traumatic experience with federal government residential schools

D Smith, C Varcoe and N Edwards [77]

N = 73

Aboriginal

Location N/A

Rural/urban

Age N/A

M = 7, F = 66

Personal

Familial

Mental health/emotional well-being

Participants described intergenerational effects of residential school as the root of addiction, violence, and poverty among individuals, families, and communities

I Sochting, R Corrado, IM Cohen, RG Ley and C Brasfield [78]

N = 127

First Nations

BC

17–81 years

M = 89, F = 38

Personal

Mental health/emotional well-being

Physical health

Risk factors for PTSD and mental health problems. Somatic complaints, such as chronic headaches, heart problems, high blood pressure, and arthritis

CD Stirbys [79]

N = 29

First Nations, Inuit, and Métis

ON

Age N/A

F

Personal

Familial

Mental health/emotional well-being

Residential schools created initial stressors for those who attended them; the longer-term effects of the children’s experiences showed up in the form of for example, alcoholism, drug abuse, or other self-destructive behaviours

R Stout [40]

N = 17

First Nations, Métis, Non-Status, Aboriginal, Undisclosed identity

MB, SK

Off-reserve

Urban

18–51 years

F = 17

Familial

Mental health/emotional well-being

Twelve of the women agreed that familial attendance at residential schools have had an enduring impact on their lives and mental health

R Stout and S Peters [24]

N = 6

First Nations

MB

Age N/A

F = 6

Familial

Mental health/emotional well-being

Women related how they had a variety of mental health illnesses including depression, eating disorders, workaholism, obsessive-compulsive disorders, self-hate, and low self-esteem

M van Niekerk and A Bombay [80]

N = 4934

First Nations

Canada-wide

(excl. NU)

On-reserve

N/A

Familial

Mental health/emotional well-being

Having a parent who attended residential school put First Nations adults diagnosed with cancer at greater risk for psychological distress compared to those without this family history.

C Varcoe and S Dick [36]

N = 30

First Nations, Mixed identity (4 identified as Aboriginal)

BC

On/off-reserve

Rural

16–58 years

F = 30

Personal

Familial

Physical health

Mental health/emotional well-being

Women’s experiences demonstrated how gender, rural living, poverty, racism, and colonialism intersect and increase risk for health problems, including STIs and HIV

ML Walls, D Hautala and J Hurley [81]

N/A

First Nations

Central Canada, USA

On-reserve

Age N/A

M/F

Personal

Familial

Mental health/emotional well-being

Suicidal behaviour was described by community members as a problem with deep historical and contemporary structural roots

ML Walls and LB Whitbeck [38]

N = 853

First Nations; American Indian

Canada-wide, USA

On-reserve

Mean age = 39.3

M, F (~72%)

Personal

Mental health/emotional well-being

Bivariate results show that culturally relevant early lifetime (residential school) and adulthood (perceived historical loss) stressors are negatively associated with mental health among adults

D Wardman and D Quantz [82]

N = 15

Aboriginal

AB, BC

Rural/urban

20–60 years

M = 2, F = 13

N/A

Mental health/emotional well-being

Participants related their binge drinking to a broader perception of shame and cultural loss, for some this began in residential schools

K Wilson, MW Rosenberg and S Abonyi [26]

N = 51,080

First Nations, Inuit, Métis

Canada-wide

On/off-reserve

Rural/urban/

Northern

18+ years

M, F

Personal

General health

Residential school attendees reported worse health status than the population who did not attend residential school