Skip to main content
Download PDF

Avoidable Deaths from Smoking: A Global Perspective

Public Health Reviews volume 33, pages 569–600 (2011)Cite this article

Abstract

On current consumption patterns, about 400 million adults worldwide will be killed by smoking between 2010 and 2050. Most of these deaths will occur among smokers currently alive. At least half will die at ages 30–69 years, losing decades of productive life. Smoking-attributable mortality has fallen sharply in high-income countries but will rise globally unless today’s smokers, most of whom live in low- and middle-income countries, quit smoking before or during middle age. The single most important intervention to raise cessation rates is a large increase in taxes. Tripling excise taxes on tobacco would raise cessation rates and deter smoking initiation. Higher taxes, regulations on smoking and information for consumers could avoid at least 115 million smoking deaths in the next few decades, including at least 25 million cancer deaths and 50 million vascular deaths.

References

  1. Jha P, Chaloupka FJ, Moore J, Gajalakshmi V, Gupta PC, Peck R, et al. Tobacco addiction. In: Disease Control Priorities in Developing Countries. Jamison DT, Breman JG, Measham AR, et al., (editors). New York, NY: Oxford University Press; 1996. p.869–86.

    Google Scholar 

  2. Ezzati M, Lopez AD. Regional, disease specific patterns of smoking-attributable mortality in 2000. Tob Control. 2004;13:388–95.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  3. Ezzati M, Henley SJ, Lopez AD, Thun MJ. Role of smoking in global and regional cancer epidemiology: current patterns and data needs. Int J Cancer. 2005;116:963–71.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  4. World Health Organization. MPOWER: A Policy Package to Reverse the Tobacco Epidemic. Geneva: WHO; 2011.

    Google Scholar 

  5. Jha P. Avoidable global cancer deaths and total deaths from smoking. Nat Rev Cancer. 2009;9:655–64.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  6. Peto R, Lopez AD. The future worldwide health effects of current smoking patterns. In: Critical Issues in Global Health. Koop EC, Pearson CE, Schwarz MR, (editors). New York, NY; Jossey-Bass: 2001.

    Google Scholar 

  7. World Health Organization. Tobacco or health: a Global Status Report. Geneva: WHO; 1997.

    Google Scholar 

  8. International Agency for Research on Cancer. IARC Monographs on the Evaluation of the Carcinogenic Risks of Chemicals to Humans. Vol. 83: Tobacco Smoke and Involuntary Smoking. Lyon, France: IARC; 2004.

    Google Scholar 

  9. US Department of Health and Human Services. Reducing the Health Consequences of Smoking: 25 Years of Progress: A Report of the Surgeon General. Center for Chronic Disease Prevention and Health Promotion, Office on Smoking and Health; 1989.

    Google Scholar 

  10. International Agency for Research on Cancer. IARC Monographs on the Evaluation of the Carcinogenic Risks of Chemicals to Humans. Vol. 89: Smokeless Tobacco and Some Tobacco-Specific n-Nitrosamines. Lyon, France: IARC; 2007.

    Google Scholar 

  11. US Department of Health and Human Services. Reducing Tobacco Use: A Report of the Surgeon General. Atlanta, GA: US DHHS, Public Health Service, Centers for Disease Control, Center for Chronic Disease Prevention and Health Promotion, Office on Smoking and Health; 2000.

    Google Scholar 

  12. US Department of Health and Human Services. Health Consequences of Involuntary Exposure to Tobacco Smoke. US DHHS; 2006.

    Google Scholar 

  13. United Nations. World Population Prospects: the 2010 Revision. Updated 20 October 2011. Available from URL: http://esa.un.org//unpd/wpp/index.htm (accessed 31 August 2012).

    Google Scholar 

  14. World Health Organization, Country Office for Bangladesh. Global Adult Tobacco Survey: Bangladesh Report 2009. Bangladesh: WHO; 2009. Available from URL: http://www.who.int/tobacco/surveillance/gats_bangladesh/en/index.html (accessed 31 August 2012).

    Google Scholar 

  15. Instituto Nacional de Câncer (Brasil). Global Adult Tobacco Survey Brazil Report 2008. Rio de Janeiro: INCA; 2010. Available from URL: http://www.who.int/tobacco/surveillance/en_tfi_gats_2010_brazil.pdf (accessed 31 August 2012).

    Google Scholar 

  16. GATS China. Global Adult Tobacco Survey. Fact Sheet China: 2010. Available from URL: http://www.who.int/tobacco/surveillance/gats_china/en/index.html (accessed 31 August 2012).

    Google Scholar 

  17. Central Agency for Public Mobilization and Statistics. Ministry of Health, Egypt. Global Adult Tobacco Survey (GATS) Egypt Country Report 2009. World Health Organization; 2010. Available from URL: http://www.who.int/tobacco/surveillance/gats_egypt/en/index.html (accessed 31 August 2012).

    Google Scholar 

  18. International Institute for Population Sciences, Ministry of Health and Family Welfare, Government of India. Global Adult Tobacco Survey India (GATS) India Report 2009–2010. World Health Organization; 2010. Available from URL: http://www.whoindia.org/en/Section20/Section25_1861.htm (accessed 31 August 2012).

    Google Scholar 

  19. Ministry of Health, Mexico. Encuesta Global de Tabaquismo en Adultos, México 2009. Washington, DC: Pan American Health Organization; 2010. Available from URL: http://www.who.int/tobacco/surveillance/gats_rep_mexico.pdf (accessed 31 August 2012). [In Spanish].

    Google Scholar 

  20. GATS Philippines. Philippines Global Adult Tobacco Survey Country Report 2010. Available from URL: http://www.who.int/tobacco/surveillance/gats_philippines/en/index.html (accessed 31 August 2012).

    Google Scholar 

  21. Ministry of Health, Poland. Global Adult Tobacco Survey Poland 2009–2010. Ministry of Health, Poland; 2010. Available from URL: http://www.who.int/tobacco/surveillance/en_tfi_gats_poland_report_2010.pdf (accessed 31 August 2012).

    Google Scholar 

  22. GATS Russian Federation. Global Adult Tobacco Survey Russian Federation 2009. Available from URL: http://www.who.int/tobacco/surveillance/en_tfi_gats_russian_countryreport.pdf (accessed 31 August 2012).

    Google Scholar 

  23. World Health Organization, Regional office for South East Asia. Global Adult Tobacco Survey: Thailand Country Report. Thailand: WHO; 2009. Available from URL: http://www.who.int/tobacco/surveillance/thailand_gats_report_2009.pdf (accessed 31 August 2012).

    Google Scholar 

  24. The Ministry of Health of Turkey. Global Adult Tobacco Survey Turkey Report 2010. Turkey: Ministry of Health; 2010. Available from URL: http://www.havanikoru.org.tr/Docs_Tutun_Dumaninin_Zararlari/GATS.pdf (accessed 31 August 2012).

    Google Scholar 

  25. GATS Ukraine. Global Adult Tobacco Survey (GATS) Report Ukraine 2010. Ukraine: 2010. Available from URL: http://www.who.int/tobacco/surveillance/en_tfi_gats_ukraine_report_2010.pdf (accessed 31 August 2012).

    Google Scholar 

  26. GATS Uruguay. Global Adult Tobacco Survey Uruguay (GATS) Fact Sheet Uruguay 2009. February 2010. Available from URL: http://www.who.int/tobacco/surveillance/gats_uruguay/en/index.html (accessed 31 August 2012).

    Google Scholar 

  27. Ministry of Health Of Viet Nam, Hanoi Medical University, General Statistics Office, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, World Health Organization. Global Adult Tobacco Survey (GATS) Viet Nam 2010. Hanoi: 2010. Available from URL: http://www.who.int/tobacco/surveillance/en_tfi_gats_vietnam_report.pdf (accessed 31 August 2012).

    Google Scholar 

  28. Warren CW, Jones NR, Eriksen MP, Asma S; Global Tobacco Surveillance System (GTSS) collaborative group. Patterns of global tobacco use in young people and implications for future chronic disease burden in adults. Lancet. 2006;367:749–53.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  29. International Smoking Statistics. A Collection of Historical Data from 30 Economically Developed Countries. Forey B, Hamling J, Lee P, (editors). New York, NY: Oxford University Press; 2009.

  30. Jha P, Guindon E, Joseph RA, Nandi A, John RM, Rao K, et al. A rational taxation system of bidis and cigarettes to reduce smoking deaths in India. Econ Polit Wkly. 2011;46:44–51.

    Google Scholar 

  31. Monteiro CA, Cavalcante TM, Moura EC, Claro RM, Szwarcwald CL. Population-based evidence of a strong decline in the prevalence of smokers in Brazil (1989–2003). Bull World Health Organ. 2007;85:527–34.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  32. Jha P, Ranson MK, Nguyen SN, Yach D. Estimates of global and regional smoking prevalence in 1995, by age and sex. Am J Public Health. 2002;92:1002–6.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  33. Peto R, Darby S, Deo H, Silcocks P, Whitley E, Doll R. Smoking, smoking cessation, and lung cancer in the UK since 1950: combination of national statistics with two case-control studies. BMJ. 2000;321:323–9.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  34. Chinese Academy of Preventive Medicine, Smoking in China: 1996 National Prevalence Survey of Smoking Pattern. Beijing: Science and Technology Press; 1997.

    Google Scholar 

  35. Jenkins CN, Dai PX, Ngoc DH, Kinh HV, Hoang TT, et al. Tobacco use in Vietnam. Prevalence, predictors, and the role of the transnational tobacco corporations. JAMA. 1997;277:1726–31.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  36. Jha P, Jacob B, Gajalakshmi V, Gupta PC, Dhingra N, Kumar R, et al. A nationally representative case-control study of smoking and death in India. N Engl J Med. 2008;358:1137–47.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  37. Sample Registration System Baseline Survey Report, 2004. New Delhi: Registrar General of India; 2007.

  38. The hazards of smoking and the benefits of stopping. In: IARC Handbooks of Cancer Prevention. Tobacco control. Vol. 11: Reversal of risk after quitting smoking. Dresler C, Leon M, (editors). Lyon: International Agency for Research on Cancer; 2007. p.15–27.

  39. Doll R, Peto R. The causes of cancer: quantitative estimates of avoidable risks of cancer in the United States today. J Natl Cancer Inst. 1981;66:1191–308.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  40. Doll R, Peto R, Boreham J, Sutherland I. Mortality in relation to smoking: 50 years’ observations on male British doctors. BMJ. 2004;328:1519.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  41. Doll R, Peto R, Wheatley K, Gray R, Sutherland I. Mortality in relation to smoking: 40 years’ observations on male British doctors. BMJ. 1994;309:901–11.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  42. Thun, MJ, Henley SJ, Calle EE. Tobacco use and cancer: an epidemiologic perspective for geneticists. Oncogene. 2002;21:7307–25.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  43. Peto R, Lopez AD, Boreham J, Thun M. Mortality from Smoking in Developed Countries, 1950–2000. 3rd ed. 2009.

    Google Scholar 

  44. Peto R, Lopez AD, Boreham J, Thun M, Heath C Jr. Mortality from tobacco in developed countries: indirect estimation from national vital statistics. Lancet. 1992;339:1268–78.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  45. Peto R, Lopez AD, Boreham J, Thun M and Heath Jr C. Mortality from Smoking in Developed Countries, 1950–2000. Oxford: Oxford University Press; 1994.

    Google Scholar 

  46. Liu BQ, Peto R, Chen ZM, Boreham J, Wu YP, Li JY, et al. Emerging tobacco hazards in China: 1. Retrospective proportional mortality study of one million deaths. BMJ. 1998;317:1411–22.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  47. Niu SR, Yang GH, Chen ZM, Wang JL, Wang GH, He XZ, et al. Emerging tobacco hazards in China: 2. Early mortality results from a prospective study. BMJ. 1998;317:1423–4.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  48. Zatonski W, Jha P. The Health Transformation in Eastern Europe after 1990: A Second Look. Warsaw: Marie Skeodowska-Curie Cancer Center and Institute of Oncology; 2000.

    Google Scholar 

  49. Crispo A, Brennan P, Jöckel KH, Schaffrath-Rosario A, Wichmann HE, Nyberg F, et al. The cumulative risk of lung cancer among current, ex- and never-smokers in European men. Br J Cancer. 2004;91:1280–6.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  50. Lopez AD, Mathers CD, Ezzati M, Jamison DT, Murray CJL. The Global Burden of Disease and Risk Factors. Washington, DC, and New York, NY: World Bank and Oxford University Press; 2006.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  51. Gu D, Kelly TN, Wu X, Chen J, Samet JM, Huang JF, et al. Mortality attributable to smoking in China. N Engl J Med. 2009;360:150–9.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  52. Dikshit R, Gupta PC, Ramasundarahettige C, Gajalakshmi V, Aleksandrowicz L, Badwe R, et al. Cancer mortality in India: a nationally representative mortality survey. Lancet. 2012;379:1807–16.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  53. Plummer M, Herrero R, Franceschi S, Meijer CJ, Snijders P, Bosch FX, et al. Smoking and cervical cancer: pooled analysis of the IARC multi-centric case-control study. Cancer Causes Control. 2003;14:805–14.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  54. Jha P, et al. Evidence-based Cardiology. Yusuf S, et al., (editors). Oxford: Oxford University Press; 2009.

  55. Teo KK, Ounpuu S, Hawken S, Pandey MR, Valentin V, Hunt D, et al. Tobacco use and risk of myocardial intraction in 52 countries in the INTERHEART study: a case-control study. Lancet. 2006;368:647–58.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  56. Smith KR, Mehta S. The burden of disease from indoor air pollution in developing countries: comparison of estimates. Int J Hyg Environ Health. 2003;206:279–89.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  57. Doll R, Hill AB. Mortality in relation to smoking: ten years’ observations of British doctors. Br Med J. 1964;1:1460–7 CONCL.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  58. Gupta PC, Pednekar MS, Parkin DM, Sankaranarayanan R. Tobacco associated mortality in Mumbai (Bombay) India. Results of the Bombay Cohort Study. Int J Epidemiol. 2005;34:1395–402.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  59. Gajalakshmi V, Peto R, Kanaka TS, Jha P. Smoking and mortality from tuberculosis and other diseases in India: retrospective study of 43000 adult male deaths and 35000 controls. Lancet. 2003;362:507–15.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  60. Thun MJ, Apicella LF, Henley SJ. Smoking vs other risk factors as the cause of smoking-attributable deaths: confounding in the courtroom. JAMA. 2000;284:706–12.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  61. Rostron B. Smoking-attributable mortality in the United States. Epidemiology. 2011;22:350–5.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  62. Jha P, Peto R, Zatonski W, Boreham J, Jarvis MJ, Lopez AD. Social inequalities in male mortality, and in male mortality from smoking: indirect estimation from national death rates in England and Wales, Poland, and North America. Lancet. 2006;368:367–70.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  63. Peto R, Whitlock G, Jha P. Effects of Obesity and Smoking on U.S. Life Expectancy N Engl J Med. 2010;362:855–7.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  64. Prospective Studies Collaboration. Body-mass index and cause-specific mortality in 900,000 adults: collaborative analyses of 57 prospective studies. Lancet. 2009;373:1083–96

    Article  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  65. Finkelstein EA, Trogdon JG, Cohen JW, Dietz W. Annual medical spending attributable to obesity: payer-and service-specific estimates. Health Aff (Millwood). 2009;28:w822–31.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  66. Mathers CD, Loncar D. Projections of global mortality and burden of disease from 2002 to 2030. PLoS Med. 2006;3:e442.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  67. The Economist. Tobacco and tolerance. 20 December 1997. p.59–61.

  68. Jha P, Chaloupka FJ. Curbing the Epidemic: Governments and the Economics of Tobacco Control. Washington DC: World Bank; 1999.

    Google Scholar 

  69. Jha P, Chaloupka FJ. Tobacco Control in Developing Countries. Oxford: Oxford University Press; 2000.

    Google Scholar 

  70. Jha P, Musgrove P, Chaloupka FJ, Yurkeli A. The Economic rationale for intervention in the tobacco market. In: Tobacco Control in Developing Countries. Jha P, Chaloupka FJ, ( editors ). Oxford and New York, NY: Oxford University Press; 2000. p.153–74.

    Google Scholar 

  71. US Department of Health and Human Services. The health consequences of smoking: the changing cigarette. A report of the Surgeon General. Washington, DC: US DHHS, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention; 2001.

    Google Scholar 

  72. Lightwood J, Collins D, Lapsley H, et al. Estimating the costs of tobacco use. In: Tobacco Control in Developing Countries. Jha P, Chaloupka FJ, (editors). Oxford and New York, NY: Oxford University Press; 2000.

    Google Scholar 

  73. John RM, Sung HY, Max W. Economics cost of tobacco use in India, 2004. Tob Control. 2009;18:138–43.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  74. Little International Inc. Public finance balance of smoking in the Czech Republic. 2000. URL: http://tobaccofreekids.org/reports/philipmorris/pmczechstudy.pdf (viewed 5 July 2011).

    Google Scholar 

  75. John RM, Sung HY, Max WB, Ross H. Counting 15 million more poor in India, thanks to tobacco. Tob Control. 201;20:349–52.

  76. Rani M, Bonu S, Jha P, Nguyen SN, Jamjoum L. Tobacco use in India: prevalence and predictors of smoking and chewing in a national cross sectional household survey. Tob Control. 2003;12:e4.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  77. John RM. Crowding out effect of tobacco expenditure and its implications on household resource allocation in India. Soc Sci Med. 2008;66:1356–67.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  78. Peck R, et al. An analyes of the economic welfare from tobacco use. In: Tobacco Control in Developing Countries. Jha P, Chaloupka FJ, (editors). Oxford and New York, NY: Oxford University Press; 2000. p.211–21.

    Google Scholar 

  79. Gruber J, Mullainathan S. Do cigarette taxes make smokers happy? Adv Econ Anal Pol. 2005;5:Article 4.

    Google Scholar 

  80. Hamilton WL, Biener L, Rodger CN. Who supports tobacco excise taxes? Factors associated with town’s and individual’s support in Massachusetts. J Public Health Manag Pract. 2005;11:333–40.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  81. Hill C, Jougla E, Beck F. Prévention et facteurs de risque. Institut de cancérologie Gustave Roussy. 2010. Available from URL: http://www.igr.fr/fr/page/prevention-et-facteurs-de-risque_80 (accessed 3 September 2012). [In French]

    Google Scholar 

  82. Harris JE, Thun MJ, Mondul AM, Calle EE. Cigarette tar yields in relation to mortality from lung cancer in the cancer prevention study II prospective cohort, 1982–8. BMJ. 2004;328:72.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  83. Chaloupka FJ, Tauras JA, Grossman M. The economics of addiction. In: Tobacco Control in Developing Countries. Jha P, Chaloupka FJ, (editors). Oxford and New York, NY: Oxford University Press; 2000.

    Google Scholar 

  84. Chaloupka FJ, Warner KE. The economics of smoking. In: The Handbook of Health Economics. Newhouse J, Culyer A, (editors). Amsterdam: Elsevier Science; 2000.

    Google Scholar 

  85. Chaloupka FJ, et al. The taxation of tobacco products. In: Tobacco Control in Developing Countries. Jha P, Chaloupka FJ, (editors). Oxford and New York, NY: Oxford University Press; 2000.

    Google Scholar 

  86. Van Walbeek C. Tobacco control in South Africa. Promot Educ. 2005;Suppl 4:25–8,57.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  87. Wasserman J, Manning WG, Newhouse JP, Winkler JD. The effects of excise taxes and regulations on cigarette smoking. J Health Econ. 1991;10:43–64.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  88. Tauras JA, Chaloupka FJ. Impact of tobacco control spending and tobacco control policies on adolescents’ attitudes and beliefs about cigarette smoking. Evidence Based Preventive Medicine. 2004;1:111–20.

    Google Scholar 

  89. Tauras JA. The Transition to Smoking Cessation: Evidence from Multiple Failure Duration Analysis: NBER Working Paper No. 7412. Cambridge, MA: National Bureau of Economic Research; 1999.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  90. Emery S, White MM, Pierce JP. Does cigarette price influence adolescent experimentation? J Health Econ. 2001;20:261–70.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  91. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Response to increases in cigarette prices by race/ethnicity, income, and age groups—United States, 1976–1993. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 1998;47:605–9.

    Google Scholar 

  92. Townsend J, Roderick P, Cooper J. Cigarette Smoking by Socio-Economic Group, Sex, and Age: Effects of Price, Income, and Health Publicity. BMJ. 1998;309:923–6.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  93. Blecher EH, van Walbeek CP. An international analysis of cigarette affordability. Tob Control. 2004;13:339–46.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  94. World Health Organization. WHO Technical Manual on Tobacco Tax Administration. Geneva: WHO; 2010.

    Google Scholar 

  95. Recours A. Politique de santé et Fiscalité du tabac. Rapport à Monsieur le Premier Ministre. Septembre 1999. [In French]

    Google Scholar 

  96. Guindon E, Bettcher D. Tobacco control in tobacco-producing countries. Bull World Health Organ. 2001;79:1086.

    CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  97. IARC Handbooks of Cancer Prevention. Effectiveness of Tax and Price Policies for Tobacco Control, Vol 14. 2011.

    Google Scholar 

  98. Eberlee J. South Africa’s Winning Tobacco Control Strategy. The International Development Research Center Reports, 2001.

    Google Scholar 

  99. Ciecierski C. Tobacco control and the transitional economies of Europe: aspects of taxation in Poland. In: 12th World Conference on Tobacco OR Health: Global Action for a Tobacco Free Future 2003.

    Google Scholar 

  100. Kenkel D, Chen L. Consumer information and tobacco use. In: Tobacco Control in Developing Countries. Jha P, Chaloupka FJ, (editors). Oxford and New York, NY: Oxford University Press; 2000.

    Google Scholar 

  101. Weinstein ND. Accuracy of smokers’ risk perceptions. Ann Behav Med. 1998;20:135–40.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  102. UK Medical Research Council. Smoking and Health: Summary and Report of the Royal College of Physicians of London on Smoking in Relation to Cancer of the Lung and Other Diseases. London: UKMRC; 1962.

    Google Scholar 

  103. US Department of Health, Education and Welfare. Smoking and Health: Report of the Advisory Committee to the Surgeon General of the Public Health Service. US Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Public Health Service, Center for Disease Control; 1964.

    Google Scholar 

  104. Townsend J. Policies to halve smoking deaths. Addiction. 1993;88:37–46.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  105. Hammond D, Fong GT, McNeill A, Borland R, Cummings KM. Effectiveness of cigarette warning labels in informing smokers about the risks of smoking: findings from the International Tobacco Control (ITC) Four Country Survey. Tob Control. 2006;15 Suppl 3:iii19–25.

    Google Scholar 

  106. McNabola A, Gill LW. The control of environmental tobacco smoke: a policy review. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2009;6:741–58.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  107. Bauer JE, Hyland A, Li Q, Steger C, Cummings KM. A longitudinal assessment of the impact of smoke-free worksite policies on tobacco use. Am J Public Health. 2005;95:1024–9.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  108. Fichtenberg CM, Glantz SA. Effect of smoke-free workplaces on smoking behaviour: systematic review. BMJ. 2002;325:188.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  109. Levy DT, Friend K, Polishchuk E. Effect of clean indoor air laws on smokers: the clean air module of the SimSmoke computer simulation model. Tob Control. 2001;10:345–51.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  110. Jacobson PD, Wasserman J. Tobacco Control Laws: Implementation and Enforcement. Santa Monica, CA: RAND; 1997.

    Google Scholar 

  111. Cigarette Report for 2004 and 2005. 2007, Washington, D.C.: Federal Trade Commission.

  112. Saffer H, Chaloupka FJ. Tobacco advertising: economic theory and international evidence. J Health Econ. 2000;19:1117–37.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  113. Blecher E. The impact of tobacco advertising bans on consumption in developing countries J Health Econ. 2008;27:930–42.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  114. US Department of Health and Human Services. Health Consequences of Smoking: Nicotine Addiction. A Report of the Surgeon General. USDHHS; 1988.

    Google Scholar 

  115. Eisenberg MJ, Filion KB, Yavin D, Bélisle P, Mottillo S, Joseph L, et al. Pharmacotherapies for smoking cessation: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. CMAJ 2008;179:135–44.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  116. Silagy C, et al. Nicotine Replacement Therapy for Smoking Cessation (Cochrane Review). In: The Cochrane Library, Issue 4. Oxford: Update Software; 2004.

    Google Scholar 

  117. West R, Zatonski W, Cedzynska M, Lewandowska D, Pazik J, Aveyard P, Stapleton J. Placebo-Controlled Trial of Cytisine for Smoking Cessation. N Engl J Med. 2011;365:1193–200.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  118. Merriman D, Yurekli A, Chaloupka FJ. How big is the worldwide cigarette smuggling problem?, In: Tobacco Control in Developing Countries. Jha P, Chaloupka FJ, (editors). Oxford and New York, NY: Oxford University Press; 2000.

    Google Scholar 

  119. Joossens L, et al. Issues in the Smuggling of Tobacco Products. In: Tobacco Control in Developing Countries. Jha P, Chaloupka FJ, (editors). Oxford and New York, NY: Oxford University Press; 2000.

    Google Scholar 

  120. Joossens L, Raw M. Turning off the tap: the real solution to cigarette smuggling. Int J Tuberc Lung Dis. 2003;7:214–22.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  121. Joossens L, Raw M. Progress in combating cigarette smuggling: controlling the supply chain. Tob Control, 2008;17:399–404.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  122. Liberman J. Four COPs and counting: achievements, underachievements and looming challenges in the early life of the WHO FCTC Conference of the Parties. Tob Control. 2012;21:215–20.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  123. Beaglehole R, Bonita R, Horton R, Adams C, Alleyne G, Asaria P, et al. for the NCD Alliance. Priority actions for the non-communicable disease crisis. Lancet. 2011;377:1438–47

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  124. Jha P, Paccaud F, Nguyen S. Strategic priorities in tobacco control for governments and international agencies. In: Tobacco Control in Developing Countries. Jha P, Chaloupka FJ, (editors). Oxford and New York, NY: Oxford University Press; 2000. p. 449–64.

    Google Scholar 

  125. Mamudu HM, Hammond R, Glantz S. Tobacco industry attempts to counter the World Bank report Curbing the Epidemic and obstruct the WHO framework convention on tobacco control. Soc Sci Med. 2008;67:1690–9.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  126. Jha P, Nugent R, Verguet S, Bloom DE, Hum R. Chronic Diseases. Copenhagen: Consensus Challenge Paper; 2012. Available from URL: http://www.copenhagenconsensus.com/Projects/CC12/Research/ChronicDisease.aspx (accessed 3 September 2012).

    Google Scholar 

  127. Thun MJ, Hannan LM, Adams-Campbell LL, Boffetta P, Buring JE, Feskanich D, et al. Lung Cancer Occurrence in Never-Smokers: An Analysis of 13 Cohorts and 22 Cancer Registry Studies. PLoS Med. 2008;5:e185.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  128. Sun S, Schiller JH, Gazdar AF. Lung cancer in never smokers-a difference disease. Nat Rev Cancer. 2007;7:778–90.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  129. Peto R, Beral V. Sir Richard Doll CH OBE. 28 October 1912 — 24 July 2005. Biogr Mems Fell R Soc. 2010;56:63–83. Available from URL: http://rsbm.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/56/63.full.pdf+html (accessed 3 September 2012).

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Centre for Global Health Research (CGHR), St. Michael’s Hospital, Dalla Lana School of Public Health, University of Toronto, Toronto, M5C 1N8, Canada

    Prabhat Jha MD, DPhil (Professor Prabhat Jha)

Authors
  1. Prabhat Jha MD, DPhil
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Prabhat Jha MD, DPhil.

Rights and permissions

Open Access  This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made.

The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder.

To view a copy of this licence, visit https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.

The Creative Commons Public Domain Dedication waiver (https://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/) applies to the data made available in this article, unless otherwise stated in a credit line to the data.

Reprints and Permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Jha, P. Avoidable Deaths from Smoking: A Global Perspective. Public Health Rev 33, 569–600 (2011). https://doi.org/10.1007/BF03391651

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/BF03391651

Keywords

  • Tobacco control
  • global health
  • smoking
  • tobacco deaths
  • low-income countries
  • middle-income countries
  • cessation
  • economics
  • prices
  • information
  • regulation

Public Health Reviews

ISSN: 2107-6952

Contact us